Different schools of thought have advanced different theories on the topic of motivation and how it relates to behaviour. The humanistic approach to motivation is one school of thought that will be considered in this discourse and Abraham Maslow’s Needs Theory of Motivation will be at the centre stage of this paper. The main themes as presented in this discourse are as follows: definition of important terms; brief background of Maslow; Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory and his humanistic approach to motivation; the criticisms that the theory has faced; the implications of the theory to teaching and learning; and lastly a conclusion.
BRIEF BACKGROUND OF MASLOW AND HIS HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO MOTIVATION
Abraham Maslow lived between 1908 and 1970. He grew up
in Brooklyn, New York, the first of seven children born to his Jewish parents
who emigrated from Russia. Maslow later described his early childhood as
unhappy and lonely, and he spent much of his time in the library immersed in
books. Maslow studied law at City College of New York (CCNY) and married his
first-cousin Bertha Goodman. He later switched to Psychology and earned all
three of his degrees in psychology from the University of Wisconsin.
Abraham Maslow was heavily influenced by Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer and anthropologist Ruth Benedict. He believed that they were such exceptional people that he began to analyse and take notes on their behaviour. This analysis served as the basis for his theories and research on human potential. At a time when most psychologists focused on aspects of human nature that were considered abnormal, Abraham Maslow shifted to focus to look at the positive sides of mental health (Ibid). His theories including the hierarchy of tweeds, self-actualization and peak experiences became fundamental subjects in the humanist movement.
Maslow became the leader of the humanistic school of psychology that emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, which he referred to as the "third force" - beyond Freudian theory and behaviourism. Basically, humanistic psychology began as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviourism, which dominated psychology at the time. Humanist thinkers felt that both psychoanalysis and behaviourism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic of emotions or failing to take the role of personal choice into account (Ibid ).
Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individual’s potential and stressed the importance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology was that people are innately good, and our innate tendencies are predominantly healthy with mental and social problems resulting from deviations from this natural tendency. People have an innate capacity for constructive growth, honesty, generosity and love. However, these instincts are weak and could easily be overwhelmed by the more powerful forces.
Humanistic psychology took a more holistic view of the individual. It is an approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings. Humanists Psychologists argue that all have an inherent need for growth and the fulfilment of potential. They likened this tendency to the planted seed whose natural potential is to become a flower; people are seen as naturally inclined towards goodness, creativity, love and joy. It is concerned with topics that are meaningful to human beings, focusing especially upon subjective experience in individual human lives.
Humanistic psychologists differ from most other
psychologists in focusing on discussion of experience rather than on the use of the
experimental method. Whether or not these views are valid, they have certainly
succeeded in offering an alternative point of view- a humanistic point of view
to motivation. It is these humanistic views that Maslow held that led to the
formulation of the needs hierarchy theory to motivation.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Maslow’s need hierarchy theory provides both a theory
of human motives by classifying basic human needs in a hierarchy and a theory
of human motivation that relates these needs to general behaviour. Prior to
Maslow, researchers generally focused separately on such factors as biology,
achievement, or power to explain what energizes, directs, and sustains human
behaviour. Abraham Maslow however, attempted to synthesize a large body of
research related to human motivation. He posited a hierarchy of human needs
based on two groupings: deficiency needs and
growth needs. Deficiency motivation and growth
needs are also known as deficiency
motivation and growth needs are also known as being needs or meta motivation.
Maslow made the major assumption that in order for the
higher needs to emerge, the lower needs must be satisfied, which means that
people only focus on their growth needs after their deficiency needs have been
met, so consequently, fewer people manage to satisfy their growth needs than to
satisfy their deficiency needs. Needs at the lowest level of the hierarchy, he
said must be at least partially satisfied before people can be motivated by
higher level goals. Once each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some
future time a deficiency is detected, the individual will act to remove the
deficiency.
He postulated that deprivation or dissatisfaction of a
need of high prepotency will lead to the domination of this need over the
organism’s personality. A prepotent need according to Maslow
is one that has the greatest power or influence over our actions. For example,
if food was taken to be a prepotent need, a person who is lacking food, safety,
love and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for
anything else. In other words, our actions and behaviour are as a result of our
deficiencies. Unlike the deficiency needs, the being needs can never be
completely filled. Teachers for example, continue to strive for even greater
improvement even when they are successful in their efforts to develop as a
teacher.
To do his research, Maslow used the biographical
method (archival research) to study the lives of several individuals and found
similarities in their lives that he called ‘self-actualising tendency’.
Among the people he studied was Abraham Lincoln, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Albert
Einstein and on the basis of this work, he identified 15 characteristics of
self-actualised people. These include; accurate perception of reality,
enjoyment of new experiences, tendency to have peak experiences, clear moral
standards, sense of humour, feeling of kinship with all people, close
friendships, democratic character, accepting others, need for privacy,
independence from culture and environment, creativity, spontaneity,
problem-centred rather than self-centred, acceptance of human nature,
resistance to conformity. Maslow argued that it was not necessary to display
all these characteristics in order to be self-actualised, and not only
self-actualised people display them. However, Maslow considered that those
individuals that he had identified as self-actualised people displayed these
characteristics more. Self-actualisers are people who fulfil their own
potential, not perfect human beings. According to Maslow all the 15 characters
he studied had attained self-actualisation or self-fulfilment because they were
no longer being bothered by the deficiency needs.
To prove Maslow’s assumption that the deficiency needs
needed to be attained first before the growth needs do, Gage (1991) tested the
assumption by comparing fishermen and cane cutters in the British West Indies.
Fishermen worked on their own and generally earned more than cane cutters, who
worked in groups and were paid on the basis of the amount of cane cut by the
entire group. Cane cutting was a more secure job, because the rewards
fluctuated less than for fishermen, and because cane cutters were still paid
even if they were unwell. It seems to follow from Maslow’s theory that it would
be mainly those whose security and esteem needs were met who would choose the
more challenging and responsible job of fishermen. As predicted from
Maslow’s theory, only 25% of the fishermen had a high
need for security or safety, against 80% of the cane cutters. In addition, 80%
of the fishermen had high self-esteem, but only 20% of the cane cutters.
FIVE STAGES OF MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
The first four levels are physiological, safety, love and esteem needs. These
four according to Maslow must be satisfied before a person can act unselfishly.
The
physiological needs are the first and
basic needs in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. They are basically required to sustain
life, such as: air, water, nourishment, sleep just to mention a few. According
to Maslow's theory, if such needs are not satisfied then one’s motivation will
arise from the quest to satisfy them. Higher needs such as social needs and
esteem are not felt until one has met the needs basic to one's bodily
functioning. As long as the body feels deprived, it organises all its energies
in the service of satisfying these demands. But once these physical needs are
met regularly, they no longer exert pressure. A need fulfilled no longer
motivates. It is at this stage that one moves to the next level.
Safety needs are second in the
hierarchy. Once physiological needs are met, one's attention turns to safety
and security in order to be free from the threat of physical and emotional
harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by; living in a safe area, having Medical
insurance, Job security, and financial reserves. According to Maslow's
hierarchy, if a person feels that he or she is in harm's way, higher needs will
not receive much attention. If we do not feel safe and secure, whether it be
for bodily safety or safety of resources, it is all consuming and hard to think
of anything else in a productive way.
Love
and belongingness: Satisfaction of
safety needs is followed by motivation for belonging and love which is the
third need in the hierarchy. These needs are also known as social needs. They
are basically related to interaction with other people and may include: need
for friends, need for belonging, need to give and receive love. An inability to
love and belong may motivate a person to behave in different ways to gain such
acceptance. For example some people attempt to use achievement as a substitute
for love.
The
need for esteem is the fourth
need on the hierarchy. Once a person feels a sense of "belonging",
the need to feel important arises. This need includes a good feeling of
self-esteem and may be a sense of achievement, which results in a show of
confidence, respect for others, and respect by others. When humans feel good
about themselves, they worry less about what others think of them and start
taking more chances.
Self-actualisation: Maslow's initial conceptualisation included only one
growth need- Self-actualisation which is the fifth need on the hierarchy.
Self-actualisation was the summit of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It is the
quest of reaching one's full potential as a person. Unlike lower-level needs,
this need is never fully satisfied; as one grows psychologically there are
always new opportunities to continue to grow. Kurtz, (2000) indicates that
self-actualised people tend to have needs such as Justice, truth, Wisdom,
Meaning Self-actualised persons have frequent occurrences of peak experiences,
which are energised moments of profound happiness and harmony. People motivated
by this need to explore and enhance relationships with others; follow interests
for intrinsic pleasure rather than for money, status, or esteem.
According to Maslow (1954), self-actualisation can be
described in the following way: “A
musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write if he is to
be ultimately at peace with himself. What a man can be, he must be. This need
we may call self-actualisation.” According to Maslow, only a small
percentage of the population reaches the level of self-actualisation. The
needs pyramid is used to describe Maslow’s Hierarchy as presented below.
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs theory of motivation
This five-stage model can be divided into
deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four levels are often referred to
as deficiency needs (D-needs), and the top-level is known as growth or
being needs (B-needs).
The deficiency needs are said to motivate people when
they are unmet. Also, the need to fulfil such needs will become stronger the
longer the duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes
without food, the hungrier they will become.
One must satisfy lower level deficit needs before
progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. When a deficit need has been
satisfied it will go away, and our activities become habitually directed
towards meeting the next set of needs that we have yet to satisfy. These then
become our salient needs. However, growth needs continue to be felt and may
even become stronger once they have been engaged. Once these growth needs have
been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called
self-actualization.
Extension of Maslow’s needs theory
Cognitive and Aesthetic needs
Maslow later
differentiated the growth need of self-actualisation, specifically naming two
lower-level growth needs prior to the general level of self-actualisation and one beyond
that level. Thus, the fifth need level became the Cognitive need which
basically meant the need to know, to understand, and to explore. The sixth one was
named the aesthetic need which met the need for symmetry, order, and
beauty. Self-actualisation became the seventh one that we have already
discussed.
Self-transcendence need
The eighth and last need that Maslow postulated was the Self-transcendence need. Meaning to connect to something beyond the ego or to
help others find self-fulfilment and realise their potential.
IMPLICATION OF MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEED THEORY ON TEACHING AND LEARNING
Maslow’s hierarchy of need theory is a baby of the
humanistic views. These views have great impact to education. One of them
according to Gage (1991), is that it promotes positive self- direction and
independence. It develops ability to take responsibility for what is learned.
It also develops creativity and enhances curiosity.
According to Maslow, the ideal university would have
no formal credits, required courses, or degrees. It would serve as an
educational retreat where people could explore various subjects, discover their
own true interests and identities, arid appreciate the joys of learning and the
preciousness of life. The teacher would be a self-actualiser, thereby serving
as a model for the students' inevitable identifications. Thus education would
achieve its proper goal: to help people become fully human and actualise their
highest potentials.
Pupils whose basic needs have not been met will have
difficult to do homework, are restless in class or are completely uninterested
in class activities. Maslow’s theory helps us to look at the student
holistically. Thus physical, emotional and intellectual are all interrelated.
If school is a fearful, unpredictable place where
pupils do not know where they stand, they are likely to be more concerned with
security and less with learning.
Consequently, teachers who have satisfied their
physiological needs and have financial security may not find money as a
motivator. To them being with their pupils or continuing with their education
is an incentive. He continues to argue that teachers at levels three and four
of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs may be more satisfied working with very complex
pupils where as those at levels one and two may prefer less complex pupils with
shorter contact sessions. For teachers struggling at levels one and two, more
money is an effective motivator and as such there is less concentration on the
learners.
At the centre of humanistic motivational perspective
is the recognition of the power that lies within learners to drive and direct
their own learning in line with their desire for self –actualization. The role
of the teacher therefore, is to ensure that learners freely pursue their
self-chosen goals.
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